Argumentación en jóvenes universitarios: revisión de investigaciones realizadas desde el socioconstructivismo

(analítico) La argumentación es una práctica social, comunicativa y cognitiva vinculada al contexto, y es una habilidad esencial para la formación académica y el aprendizaje de los estudiantes universitarios. El grupo Procesos Sociocognitivos del Aprendizaje (Instituto Rosario de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Educación de Argentina) realizó varios estudios sobre la temática, destacando el conflicto sociocognitivo como una situación potencial para la construcción del conocimiento y la argumentación como una modalidad privilegiada para resolverlo, desde la perspectiva socioconstructivista. El objetivo del artículo es presentar conocimiento sobre la argumentación desde la perspectiva socioconstructivista basada en la investigación empírica realizada por el dicho grupo en la última década, con el fin de contribuir a la construcción del balance de la producción académica en el siglo XXI sobre estudiantes universitarios, objetivo central del monográfico.

(analytical) Argumentation is a social, communicative, and cognitive practice linked to context and an essential skill for the academic formation and learning of university students. Sociocognitive Processes of learning Group (Rosario Institute for Research in Education Sciences, Argentina) conducted several studies on the topic, highlighting sociocognitive conflict as a potential situation for knowledge construction and argumentation as a privileged modality to solve it, from the socioconstructivist perspective. The article aims to present knowledge on argumentation from the socioconstructivist perspective based on empirical research conducted by the PSA group in the last decade. This will contribute to building the balance of academic production in the 21st century on university students, the central objective of the monograph.

(analítico) A argumentação é uma prática social, comunicativa e cognitiva ligada ao contexto e uma habilidade essencial para a formação acadêmica e aprendizado de estudantes universitários. O grupo Processos Sociocognitivos da Aprendizagem (Instituto de pesquisas em Ciências da Educação de Rosário, Argentina) realizou vários estudos sobre o tema, destacando o conflito sociocognitivo como uma situação potencial para a construção do conhecimento e a argumentação como uma modalidade privilegiada para resolvêlo, a partir da perspectiva socioconstrutivista. O objetivo do artigo é apresentar conhecimentos sobre a argumentação a partir da perspectiva socioconstrutivista baseada em pesquisas empíricas realizadas pelo grupo PSA na última década. Isso contribuirá para a construção do equilíbrio da produção acadêmica no século XXI sobre estudantes universitários, o objetivo central da monografia.

Argumentación escrita en estudiantes universitarios ingresantes de psicología

Resumen: La argumentación es una competencia cultural desarrollada a lo largo de la vida que involucra procesos cognitivos complejos y es necesaria para el desarrollo académico del estudiante y sobre todo del estudiante universitario. Debido a que la argumentación escrita es una actividad común en el ciclo universitario, el objetivo de esta investigación es analizar la competencia argumental escrita de los estudiantes universitarios ingresantes pertenecientes a una carrera de grado de la Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Se propone la utilización de un modelo de evaluación inspirado en Garcia-Milá et al. (2016), el cual está basado en la integración de justificaciones, objeciones y contra-argumentaciones para analizar la competencia argumental escrita de estudiantes universitarios de primer año. La muestra estuvo compuesta por 187 estudiantes universitarios ingresantes pertenecientes a la carrera de psicología. Se halló que la mitad de los estudiantes presentan una competencia argumental básica. Aun así, es una buena base a partir de la cual mejorar.

Abstract: The argumentation it's a cultural competence developed throughout life that involves complex cognitive processes and is necessary for the student academic development and especially of the college student. Due to the fact that written argumentation is a common activity in the college career, the objective of this research is to analyze the written argumentative competence of first year college students belonging to a career at the National University of Rosario (UNR in Spanish). We suggest the use of an evaluation model inspired by Garcia-Milá et al. (2016) which is based on the integration of justifications, objections, and counter-arguments to analyze the written argumentative competence of first year college students. The sample was made up of 187 college students from the first year of psychology career. We found that half of the students present a basic argumentative competence. Even so, it`s a good start from which to improve.

Resumo: A argumentação é uma competência cultural desenvolvida ao longo da vida que envolve processos cognitivos complexos e é necessária para o desenvolvimento acadêmico do aluno e principalmente do universitário. Por ser a argumentação escrita uma atividade comum no ciclo universitário, o objetivo desta pesquisa é analisar a competência argumentativa escrita dos ingressantes universitários pertencentes a um curso de graduação da Universidade Nacional de Rosário. O modelo de avaliação utilizado foi baseado em Garcia-Milá et al. (2016), que se baseia na integração de justificativas, objeções e contra-argumentos para analisar a competência argumentativa escrita dos estudantes universitários do primeiro ano. A amostra foi composta por 187 estudantes universitários do primeiro ano da carreira de psicologia. Constatou-se que metade dos alunos apresenta competência argumentativa básica. Ainda assim, é uma boa base para melhorar.

La teoría del conflicto sociocognitivo del desarrollo: Una mirada retrospectiva a partir de investigaciones propias / The theory of socio-cognitive conflict of development: A retrospective approach from our own research

Resumen La teoría del conflicto sociocognitivo del desarrollo cognitivo emerge en la psicología europea en la década de los 70, sobre todo a partir de investigaciones de la llamada Escuela de Psicología Social de Ginebra, que alcanzó notable difusión en las décadas siguientes. Representa una postura neopiagetiana crítica que pone el acento en el papel determinante de la interacción sociocognitiva entre iguales (y más específicamente de la confrontación de puntos de vista distintos) en el desarrollo de la inteligencia. En este artículo se analiza la especificidad del constructo que perimitirá determinar con claridad los elementos teóricos que lo definen y analizar las confusiones y malos entendidos a que dio lugar la notable difusión del paradigma en la psicología y la educación. En una segunda parte se reportan diversas ilustraciones experimentales sobre la temática, fruto de la labor de un equipo compacto de investigadores del IRICE (CONICET). Se trata de una selección en torno a tres ejes de extensión del paradigma: el conflicto como promotor del desarrollo de la operacionalidad formal, el microanálisis de los tipos y modalidades de conflicto sociocognitivo, y el papel de este en el aprendizaje de conocimientos y el cambio conceptual. Estas ilustraciones son solo un ejemplo de la vitalidad que el paradigma generó en el seno de este equipo de trabajo, y marcan una evolución que también se registra en el contexto científico global. El artículo también hace referencia a estos aportes, aunque el acento se pone en las investigaciones propias, entendido como una muestra de construcción colaborativa.

Abstract The theory of socio-cognitive conflict emerges in European Psychology in the 1970s, particularly from the research of the social psychology school of Geneve, that had a strong diffusion in the following years. This theory represents a neo-piagetian critical view of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, in the sense that the attention is focused on the role of peer socio-cognitive interaction (specifically in the social confrontations of different points of view) enhancing cognitive growth. The value of the socio-cognitive conflict promoting cognitive development lies in the decentration effect that it produces. According to this view, disturbance resulting from socio-cognitive conflicts gives way to a superior state of equilibrium. The first part of the article focuses on the theoretical and methodological analysis of the concept. In that way, two periods are distinguished in the evolution of the paradigm attending the inclusion of the communicational analysis of the verbal exchange between subjects. Also, this analysis refers to many confusions and misunderstandings in the larger application of the paradigm to psychology and education. The aim of the second part is to present some experimental illustrations produced by the IRICE (CONICET) research team's work. These illustrations concern three conceptual axes: the application of the paradigm to the development of the formal-logical intelligence, the microanalysis of modalities and types of socio-cognitive conflict, and the extended application of the paradigm to the knowledge learning and conceptual change. The research reported in the first axis concerns the comparison of two experimental conditions: collaborative (dyads) and individual problem solving task (problems of Raven's test), in a sample of 12-13 year old students. The comparison concerns to the performances both in the experimental treatment and in the individual post-test of equivalent problems applied to all participants. Results show, in both cases, the superiority of the collective condition. The second axis focuses on some studies concerning the modalities and types of socio-cognitive conflicts. Particularly, a system of categories for the analysis of the social behavior of children of different ages (4, 8 and 12 years old) in a block construction task (to build a house) is reported. This system differentiates many kinds of interactional behavior: dissociation, dominance-submission (both lower social coordination), cooperation (implicit and explicit) and collaboration (these three are modalities of higher social coordination). The third axis examines some illustrations referring to the extension of paradigm to the epistemic learning. After some references to the difficulty of this extension to the educational settings, two studies are reported. The first one concerns an experimental comparison between a collaborative learning condition (dyads) and an individual learning condition in university students of Psychology and Physics. Also, two kinds of collaborative learning are considered, one that assures alternating of participation, the incentive of argumentation and the reciprocal evaluation (in other words, the promotion of the socio-cognitive conflict), and one that is carried out without any intervention (spontaneous collaborative learning). Results show the superiority of the promoting socio-cognitive conflict condition upon the others, both in a written production and in individual learning post-tests. In a second research the comparison is between three instructional modalities to teach an epistemic topic: expositive, participative (with teacher's scaffolding) and collaborative (only peers), in students of the first grade of secondary education (13 years old), in samples taken from two schools. Results for individual learning show that there are not great differences between the three modalities when the initial level (pre-test) of cognitive competence is high, but not if the cognitive level is low; here the collaborative condition (without scaffolding) has many difficulties. Finally, the article presents some general conclusions specifically concerning the socio-cognitive conflict.

Modalidades de razonamiento en díadas durante la resolución de problemas lógicos / Modalities of reasoning in dyads during problem solving

Resumen Objetivos: a) Identificar cualitativamente modalidades de razonamiento en díadas que resuelven problemas lógicos; b) explorar si estas varían en función de tres tipos de composición diádica: dos compañeros de baja competencia (simetría baja), dos compañeros de alta competencia (simetría alta) y un compañero de baja competencia junto a otro de alta competencia (asimetría). Método: Participaron 36 díadas (72 sujetos, edad: M=11 años, 3 meses; DE= 7 meses), de alumnos de quinto y sexto grado de primaria de Rosario (Argentina) La tarea consistió en una serie de diez ítems lógicos de dificultad creciente (matrices progresivas). Esta fue realizada de dos maneras: primero, de modo individual; segundo, bajo una modalidad colaborativa (en díada). El análisis de contenido se concentró en ítems seleccionados intencionalmente y estuvo basado en la construcción recursiva de categorías (método comparativo constante). Resultados: El análisis de las interacciones permitió identificar seis modalidades básicas de razonamiento, que fueron desde un nivel inicial basado en una selección arbitraria de la respuesta, hasta un nivel de alta complejidad basado en la construcción de sentido lógico integrando filas y columnas. Por otra parte, las modalidades más rudimentarias (ensayo-error) predominaron en las díadas con simetría baja (40,0%), mientras que las más avanzadas (de construcción de sentido entre filas y/o columnas) así lo hicieron en las díadas asimétricas (47,4%). Conclusiones: Los resultados permiten ahondar en la comprensión de los procesos sociocognitivos entre pares, especialmente en relación a los fundamentos lógicos propuestos en la actividad. Al mismo tiempo, se discute el concepto de modalidad de razonamiento y se lo diferencia del concepto de modalidad sociocognitiva.

Abstract Objetives: (a) To identify qualitatively modalities of reasoning in dyads that solve logical problems; b) to explore if they vary depending on three types of dyadic composition: two low-competence partners (low-competence symmetry), two high-competence (high-competence symmetry); a low-competence subject with a high-competence subject (asymmetry). Method: Participants were 36 dyads (72 subjects, age: M=11 years old, 3 months; SD= 7 months) of 5th and 6th grade of elementary school, from Rosario (Argentina). The task consisted of a series of ten logical items of increasing difficulty (progressive matrices). This was performed in two ways: first, individually; then, collaborative modality (dyad). The content analysis was concentrated on intentionally selected items and was based on the recursive construction of categories (constant comparative method). Results: The analysis of interactions allowed identifying six basic modes of reasoning, that were from an initial level based on an arbitrary selection of the answer, up to a level of high complexity based on logical sense construction integrating rows and columns. Moreover, the most rudimentary modalities (trial and error) predominated in the low-competence symmetry dyads (40.0%), while the most advanced (construction of sense between rows and/or columns) predominated in the asymmetric dyads (47.4%). Conclusions: The results allow to depth in the understanding of peer socio-cognitive processes, especially in relation to the logical fundaments proposed in the activity. At the same time, the concept of modality of reasoning is discussed and it is differentiated from the concept of socio-cognitive modality.

Estudio secuencial de la interacción sociocognitiva durante la resolución de problemas lógicos / Sequential study of the socio-cognitive interaction in logical problem solving

Resumen El objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar, desde una perspectiva secuencial, la interacción sociocognitiva durante la resolución colaborativa de problemas lógicos, en díadas de estudiantes de quinto y sexto grado de educación primaria, con composiciones sociocognitivas asimétricas y simétricas. Se trató de un estudio cuasi-experimental de casos, de dos fases: la primera consistió en la resolución individual de ítems lógicos, para evaluar el nivel de competencia específica inicial de cada sujeto. Con base en dicho criterio, se conformaron díadas asimétricas (un compañero de alta competencia con un par de baja competencia) y simétricas (ambos compañeros de baja competencia), que resolvieron la tarea de manera colaborativa. La interacción sociocognitiva fue codificada por un sistema de categorías adaptado. Se realizó un análisis secuencial de la interacción, es decir, de probabilidades de transición entre códigos (eventos); esto se dio al interior de cada condición (asimétrica y simétrica), para detectar patrones secuenciales diferenciales. Los resultados indican patrones de interacción diferentes según la composición de la díada: en las díadas asimétricas, la posibilidad de establecer secuencias de co-construcción de conocimiento depende principalmente de la intervención inicial emitida por el sujeto más competente; en cambio, en las díadas simétricas se constataron niveles altos de alternancia de la participación por ambos compañeros durante la secuencia de interacción. Se ratifica la hipótesis de la influencia de la composición sociocognitiva de la díada sobre la interacción, pero con aporte de considerar a ésta desde una perspectiva secuencial y diacrónica.

Abstract This study aims at analyzing the socio-cognitive interaction during the collaborative resolution of logical problems, from a sequential perspective. It is focused on dyads of fifth and sixth graders, with asymmetric and symmetric socio-cognitive compositions. The design was a quasi-experimental case study with two phases: the first was an individual resolution of logical items to evaluate the initial specific competence level of each subject. Then, it was made up asymmetrical dyads (a high-competence partner with a pair of low competence) and symmetrical (both low-competence partners), which solved the task collaboratively. The socio-cognitive interaction was codified by a system of adapted categories. A sequential analysis of the interaction was performed (analysis of probabilities of transition between codes or events). This was done in relation to each condition (asymmetric and symmetric), to detect differential sequential patterns. The results indicate different interaction patterns depending on the composition of the dyad: asymmetric dyads showed that the possibility of establishing co-construction knowledge sequences depends mainly on the initial intervention issued by the most competent subject; symmetric dyads showed high levels of alternation referred to participation issued by both partners during the interaction sequence. The hypothesis that the influence of the socio-cognitive composition of the dyad on the interaction is ratified, but it is considered from a sequential diachronic perspective.

Complejidad argumentativa individual escrita en estudiantes universitarios ingresantes y avanzados / Written individual argumentative complexity of first-year and senior university students

La investigación compara la complejidad argumentativa individual escrita en tareas sociocientíficas de estudiantes universitarios de Psicología en función del momento de cursado (ingresante/avanzado) y de la presencia de un sistema de representación externa adicional (gráfico). Participaron 72 estudiantes de una universidad argentina. Estos emitieron opinión escrita sobre una situación sociocientífica con argumentos a favor y en contra, y un grupo dispuso de un sistema de información adicional (gráfico). Se codificaron las producciones según: (a) si se trataba de un texto argumentativo; (b) en los textos argumentativos, se consideraron cantidad de argumentos, diferencia de opinión principal, estructura argumentativa, sesgo confirmatorio y (c) uso de información. Los resultados indicaron una relación entre los estudiantes ingresantes y la producción de textos no argumentativos, por un lado, y de los estudiantes avanzados y la producción de textos argumentativos, por el otro. Se discuten las implicancias de los resultados en relación a la comprensión teórica de la competencia argumentativa y la creación de material educativo para la formación universitaria.

The research compares the written individual argumentative complexity in socio-scientific tasks of psychology university students, based on the year of study (first-year/senior student) and the presence of an additional external representation system (graph). Seventy-two (72) students from an Argentine university participated in the study. They gave their written opinion about a socio-scientific situation that included arguments for and against it, and a group received an additional information system (graph). The productions were coded according to: (a) whether it was an argumentative text; (b) the number of arguments, difference from the main opinion, argumentative structure, and confirmatory bias in the argumentative texts; and (c) the use of information. The results showed a relationship between first-year students and the production of non-argumentative texts, and a relationship between senior students and the production of argumentative texts. The results of the theoretical conceptualization of the argumentative competence, and the design of educational materials for university training are discussed.

Interaction among experience, teaching performance and student's learning at university level / Relação entre experiência e desempenho docente e aprendizagem de universitários

This experimental study approaches characteristics of three university teachers' classes with different levels of experience. According to the literature, experienced teachers more often than not are adaptable to different contexts. However, novice teachers are usually focused on specific class contents to be evaluated. Three teachers were selected, a Professor, and two Assistants (a university level one and an undergraduate). We gave them a source text to teach 10 students each one. After that, students' knowledge was evaluated with a post-test and a self-evaluation. The characteristics of the three classes were evaluated by external judges and the students themselves. Moreover, theme and sequential submission analyses following the source text were made. Results show differences in each of the analyzed aspects according to the literature...

O objetivo deste estudo foi relacionar a experiência dos docentes com a apresentação dos conteúdos e a aprendizagem de estudantes no nível universitário. É de se esperar que professores com mais experiência educacional sejam adaptáveis a novos contextos e que não apenas ensinem conteúdos a serem avaliados posteriormente. Metodologicamente, o projeto teve esquema quase-experimental tipo pré-teste/pós-teste. Foram escolhidos três professores de Ciências Exatas: professor experiente, auxiliar com nível superior e auxiliar estudante. Um texto-fonte lhes foi entregue com os conteúdos que deveriam ser ensinados a dez estudantes. As características do ensino foram analisadas quanto ao ajuste das aulas ao texto-fonte e avaliadas por juízes externos à pesquisa e pelos próprios estudantes. A aprendizagem dos conceitos foi avaliada por um pós-teste e uma autoavaliação dos estudantes, ambos de múltipla escolha. Apresentaram-se diferenças nos aspectos analisados nas aulas estudadas. A análise realizada permite evidenciar diferenças nos papéis, possibilitando fortalecer, assim, aspetos diferentes das aprendizagens dos estudantes em futuras aulas que venham a ministrar...

El conflicto sociocognitivo como instrumento de aprendizaje en contextos colaborativos / The sociocognitive conflict as a learning tool in collaborative contexts

El conflicto sociocognitivo (CSC) ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado por medio de diseños experimentales de investigación como promotor del desarrollo en niños pequeños. En la actualidad, existe una línea de investigación que continúa esta orientación llevando el concepto al contexto del aprendizaje formal, dando lugar a diseños más variados. Sin embargo, muy pocas investigaciones hacen del CSC el eje de sus trabajos. El estudio que se informa buscó incentivar en díadas de estudiantes universitarios el CSC en el aprendizaje colaborativo de conceptos. Con el objetivo de evaluar las producciones escritas que los alumnos realizaban durante el aprendizaje y el efecto de aprendizaje logrado, se constituyeron tres grupos: uno experimental, formado por díadas colaborativas que fueron intervenidas por el investigador y dos grupos control (uno constituido por díadas que también trabajaron colaborativamente pero sin intervención y otro, por sujetos que trabajaron solos y que tampoco fueron intervenidos). La muestra estuvo constituida por 120 sujetos, 60 alumnos de ciencias exactas (Física) y 60 alumnos de ciencias sociales (Psicología). Todos ellos eran estudiantes de primer año. Se elaboraron cuestionarios y textos y se trabajó con un diseño de tipo experimental ‘pre-test individual / intervención sobre la colaboración sociocognitiva / pos-test individual’, estando el incentivo del CSC a cargo de un investigador que garantizaba la simetría de la participación, la evaluación mutua y la explicitación de las diferencias cognitivas. Los resultados muestran que el incentivo del CSC es altamente eficaz en relación a las dos variables dependientes estudiadas: el aprendizaje logrado y la producción escrita; un efecto no esperado fue la mayor homogeneidad de los aprendizajes en las díadas intervenidas.

Socio-cognitive conflict (SCC) has been defined as the exchange of different points of view when two or more people are working in a task together. It is cognitive because the points of view are intellectually supported and social because it takes place during an interaction. The concept of SCC was developed in the Geneva School of Educational Social Psychology and has been traditionally studied as an important factor in children development. These original studies were made using an experimental methodology, with samples of children between 6 and 7 years old. The basic learning tasks evaluated were piagetian tasks of conservation, for example, with liquids, length, quantity, etc. Nowadays, there is a new research field which takes this approach to study the SCC concept in formal learning contexts. This gave place to more varied designs. However, not many designs take SCC as their central aspect. The present study focuses on developing the SCC in pairs of university students using a pretest / post test experimental design. The collaborative learning environment is particularly critical for SCC to take place. This scenario is appropriate for the development of SCC because when pairs are working together sharing the same goal, the interaction increases. In this study the intervention focused on three signs of SCC: symmetry, peer evaluation and the cognitive differences between students. Researchers regulated a ‘symmetrical’ participation encouraging both students to participate in a similar amount of times and tasks. ‘Peer evaluation’ takes place when both students express their agreement or disagreement with the other one’s speech. Researchers also asked students to express their disagreements even if they were shown as non-verbal expressions to increase the cognitive differences between them. In other words, the intervention was not focused on teaching concepts (as professors usually do in their classes); the goal was to guarantee the interaction between the students themselves. In order to evaluate the effect of the intervention on learning and on the interaction processes, three groups of students were constituted. One of them was the experimental group which was constituted by pairs who received the intervention of a researcher. The other two groups were control groups: one of them was integrated by pairs of students who worked independently, and the other one, by participants who worked alone. The sample had 120 participants, 60 students of an exact science career and 60 of a social science career. All students were in the first year of university. Post test evaluations show that encouraging SCC is effective in academic learning. In the experimental group there was more symmetry in participation and homogeneity in the learning process. In addition the written productions in this group were more complete, coherent, and logically structured than the control groups’ productions. Educational implications for university level are discussed. These kinds of results are important because they could be used as an instrument for the classroom organization. It is also important as an example to consider ways to develop (especially with the university students), skills like dialogue, mutual understanding, team work, cognitive explanation, peer evaluation, self-evaluation, and respect for peers’ points of view. All these skills can be developed with teachers who are interested in increasing SCC in collaborative learning environments.